410-Dixon-语有优劣乎.md
Are Some Languages Better than Others | 语有优劣乎
Name: Are Some Languages Better than Others?
Author: R. M. W. Dixon
ISBN 978–0–19–876681–0
[TOC]
1 Setting the scene
今时今世, 语无可以为 '原始' 者. 皆足够复杂智慧.
语行事皆异, 胜在不同处, 总结之知有轻微 '优者'.
1.1 The role of language
Language assisting in the process of belonging. 名, 称, 地, 族群の语, 以语组织,论讨生活套路.
Language enabling cooperative endeavour. facilitator.
Language reflecting social organisation. 话语风格, 语域.
Language used to display emotions.
Language used to convey information.
Language as a means for aesthetic expression. 故事, 演剧, 歌... pleasure.
Language as the vehicle for scholarly thought and argumentation Language.
Language as the conduit for proselytisation
1.2 A primitive language
自原始交流方式. Started in a small way.
1.3 What does ‘better’ mean?
One language is better than another to the extent that it fulfils the primary functions of a language.
If we can compare a modern-day language with a primitive one, and say which is better, we must surely be able to compare two modern-day languages.
Each language has a distinct infrastructure. What is expressed through the lexicon in one language may be handled within the grammar in another.
各方式或优劣, 或同等.
There are some folk who insist that one should never try to compare the relative worth of languages. Why not? What are they afraid of? If linguistics is to be regarded as a natural science (which is a tenet I subscribe to; see section 1.5) then evaluation must be an element in its modus operandi. The doubters say that all languages are ‘equal’, that each language is perfect for the role it plays in the society which uses it. But if a language is perfect, why—indeed how—could it ever change? And each language is in a process of change, all the time.
Not every scientific question has a clear-cut answer. But if a question is not posed (if, indeed, a prohibition is placed on asking it) we shall never know what the answer might be.
1.4 The truth about writing
无文字, 不代表称不上语言.
语言的绝大部分历史阶段都无文字. 文字仅为可选项, 一些意义上很有利, 另一种意义上不利(detrimental).
无文字亦可有科学论述, 及文学 -- 荷马史诗, 原住民的套曲(song cycle)等.
(简述)文字史 Def 埃及象形文字系.
无文字社会, 记忆力惊人, 随意回忆史, 法, 传奇, 套曲, 制造工具与制备食物之法. 有文字则依赖之, 失去 '好记性'.
‘When a nation begins to read . . . what was once the possession of the folk as a whole, becomes the heritage of the literate only, and soon, unless it is gathered up by the antiquary, vanishes altogether.’ -- G. L. Kittredge, a professor of English
...writing can impede what would be desirable change in a language.
It is interesting to note that some of the most complex grammatical systems which have been described belong to languages with no written tradition.
1.5 The science of linguistics
Linguistics can be regarded as the general science of language, ==parallel to mathematics== as the general science of number. Pure mathematics provides a ==central store-house of results and methods== that are drawn on by more empirical disciplines such as quantum mechanics, psephology, bridge-building, power generation, aircraft design, and much more. In similar fashion, linguistics presents a theoretical account of the nature of human language. This can be drawn on, as required, by people engaged in language teaching, translation, dictionary making, the study of literary style, cultural anthropology, philosophy, and psychology, to name but a few.
There are a number of possible approaches to the study of language. That which is followed here treats linguistics as a ==natural science==, on a par with geology, biology, physics, and chemistry. The methodology is basically inductive. (Jlåk: 理论提出用以描述的参数, 特定语言揭示新的变体以优化理论)
(e. g. Negation, 除了是与否, 亦可有 '未知'.)
科学の四大任务
Linguistics is generally reckoned to be the second oldest science (after astronomy); its beginnings were in India, before 500 BCE, with Pāṇini’s magisterial grammar of Sanskrit. Like every other science, it has four fundamental tasks: description, explanation, prediction, and evaluation.
述. 三要素
A full grammar.
A full lexicon. 语法属性, 核心含义, 引申义, 以优选之例区分于近义反义, 常用的文化语境及实际含义.
A collection of texts (对于知之甚少的语言). a variety of speakers, a range of genres
释. 可得自语言内, 亦可其外.
自言内の例: 德语 Mädchen 之中性
自文化の例: Dyirbal, 日月不属于无生命词类.
预. 有某属性, 就很可能有另; 有某结构, 就可能如何演变.(虽不 exact)
例 Def 属性: 些语形容词很少, 则很可能包含 dimension('big' and 'little', 'long' and 'short'), age('new' and 'old'), value('good' and 'bad'), and color('black', 'white', and perhaps 'red'). 很不可能包含 human propensities, such as ‘rude’, ‘jealous’, and ‘clever’.
例 Def 属性: 若其他参数根据名词的数变化, 单数中会有最多种变体.
例 Def 演变: 英语的短语动词, 将会当作单个词使用, 变位将会至于最后, e. g. take-after-s
评.
Comparing two things and assessing their worth is a natural practice in most disciplines, but it is something which has by-andlarge been shunned in linguistics. If linguistics is to be recognised as a science, which is my contention, it has to seriously engage in evaluation.
This[比较各方面综合起来的属性, 如复杂性时, 个方面的权重] is not an endeavour which will concern us here, except tangentially, as we focus on the quite different question of whether one language can be considered better than another with respect to fulfilling the functions outlined in section 1.1.
l'end of ###
(这里阐述的语言科学区别于其他一些研究语言的途径, 如 'formal theories')
1.6 History of ‘evaluations’
It is the norm for any people to consider their ethnic group, lifestyle, and language to be optimal, with all others regarded as deficient. (e. g. Jarawara)
社会有物质和社会两个方面. 语言主要关乎社会层面.
Language is a social phenomenon. It is thus natural that intricacy of grammatical system should correlate not with degree of material development, but instead with sophistication of social system. It has been found that the languages with the most demanding grammars are among those spoken by small tribal groups which are high in social but low in material elaboration. Indeed, linguistic parameters tend to reflect social ones.
评判语言价值的几个历史阶段
Stage 1, Racist evaluation.
只看了物质, 表面. 是错的.
It is surely significant that Europeans typically experienced considerable difficulty in mastering the local languages, whereas the conquered people soon exhibited an easy fluency in English, French, German, Spanish, Portuguese, Dutch, or whatever.
Stage 2, Redress.
每授语言学, 皆要反对种族主义评判.
The first pages of textbooks and the first lectures of freshman courses emphasised, as loud as was possible, that ‘no language spoken in the world today is primitive’ and then ‘that all languages are about equal in complexity’.
Stage 3, Scientific evaluation.
2 How languages work
语, 非代数运算, 而是世界之镜, 反映人的生存环境, 信仰态度, 社会组织系统.
任何言语只能结合言语事件和社会语境来充分理解.
e. g. 指代系统包含上下山 Def Hua, 不表达欲求 Def an Old Order Mennonite community in Canada, ngilbin Def Dyirbal
2.1 The make-up of a language
A language involves two independent but interlocking parts:
lexicon: akin to a parking lot
大
色々词
开放
(以后再讨论)
gramma: like a city centre
小
系统
封闭
一项与其他项互补, e. g. der, das, oder die
Each language has a number of obligatory grammatical systems, 必选其一
多样. e. g.:
en: 数
Dyirbal: 性
Jarawara:
数: 仅四词有异数异形, ‘spirit’, ‘man’, ‘woman’, and‘child’
How far in the past: immediate past is used for anything which happened from a moment ago to a few months in the past, recent past extends from a few months to a few years ago, with far past reserved for an event many years back.
性
言据性: did the speaker see the child fall, marked by eyewitness evidentiality (e), or did they not see it, marked by non-eyewitness evidentiality (n)?
带来翻译困难
Languages differ as to what has to be said. 所必言, 在他语中可为所可言, 作为 optional extra, 以 periphrastic means
语法亦包含 techniques for combining clauses to create complex sentences
coordination
complement clause construction
relative clause construction
2.2 Phonology and redundancy
诸语音位区分有别.
V, C
To combine adequacy of communication within a speech community and ease of learnability for people outside it, the ideal is medium-sized inventories of about 5 vowels and 20 or so consonants. This will enable the language to have words of medium length.
redundancy
That is, there are gaps. Not every possible word form (according to the phonological structure of the language) is assigned to an actual lexical or grammatical word.
(作用)The hearer may not be lending their full attention, the speaker may not always enunciate in a model manner, there may be extraneous noise which impedes hearing. To counter this, all languages incorporate a goodly measure of redundancy, both in grammar and in the make-up of words. (i. e. 'gaps')
2.3 Tones
Around half of the languages of the world go further than this, using differences of pitch, called ‘tones’, to distinguish the meanings of words in the same way that vowels and consonants do.
声调本质形式
‘register tones’, each having a relatively flat pitch level
‘contour tones’ (as in Chinese), which involve pitch movements, such as rising, falling, falling-rising.
声调存在形式: 词, 音节
声调可有语法意义
Yuen Ren Chao 说, 像冰淇淋筒, 付钱买冰淇淋与筒, 则不妨亦食筒
2.4 Dividing things up
些概念总归语法, 另总归词汇, 其亦有 middle ground, 异语异归
动词两种:
primary verb: 确指特定动作
secondary concept: 描述动作阶段(begin, continue, finish), 情态(如 can, may, must), want, 使役(causative, 一些-en, 大部分 to make)
何手段, 与语言总况一致, 富含词缀者常诉诸语法. 高下难较, 但独立词便于表达异主语:'I want John to go'
2.5 Shifters
其指称不固定也.
分类:
Locational shifters:
俩: 远近, 皆有副词性, 多数还有名词性
仨: 中距于说话人, 或近于对方(adressee), 或两种体系结合
距离是相对的, 依谈话之视野
亦可包含高低平
Temporal shifters:
昨今明
今天早些, 现在, 今天晚些
Pronoun shifters:
皆有一二人称
大部分有三
单复数(英语奇葩)
dual, paucal
clusivity(包含式), 是否包含对方
bound pronouns, 本质为词缀
2.6 Types of words
Word classes are recognised for each language in terms of their grammatical properties within that language. 不能从词义立即看出.
些语言词类 discrete, 另些 partly overlapping(primary membership v.s. double duty = conversion = zero derivation)
3 What is necessary
Found in all lañs.
3.1 Speech acts
又称 Mood
| speech act | grammatical label |
|---|---|
statement | declarative (or indicative) |
command | imperative |
question | interrogative |
少数语言规整标记, e. g. West Greenlandic, Jarawara
interrogative
polar question 乄 content question
polar question
或仅用升调标记. 或如英语词序.
In Mupun, a Chadic language from Nigeria, there are a number of contrastive markers; for example, suffix -a is used when the speaker expects a ‘yes’ answer, suffix -wo to express astonishment (for example, ‘Did she marry someone else?’), and so on.
content question
常可通过特殊疑问词
语调不一
eight standard content question words: ==‘who’ ‘what’ ‘which’ ‘how many/how much’ ‘where’ ‘when’ ‘why’ ‘how’==
很少有八个独立形式, 多为派生如 '何人'
可数不可数的问词, 或区别或不
少有特问动词 (英语只能用 do what)
declarative
the neutral mood, declarative, 或无标记
imperative
许多语言标记为动词最短形式
最常用第二人称 (单复), 些有第一(let's)
远近(时间&空间)
静态含义动词或不可祈使(如 regret, 但否定可)
否定或很异
3.2 Negation
否定全句.
否定な词
否定な词缀
yes & no, a single-word response to a polar question
祈使句否定或同陈述, 或特殊
少数不能否定从句, 有时从句否定异于主句
有些可否定单个词
两个否定标志或许:
西班牙语, 否定意义词 (nobody) 若在动词后,动词前加否定标志 no
英语, 一些变体中, 双重否定表强调否定
一些, 表肯定, 如 Newar, 也如汉语吧
3.3 Possession
词并列
标记, 加于领属者: genitive
加于从属者: pertensive(e.g. Karbi)
所属的分类:
| possession | e.g. |
|---|---|
OWNERSHIP | Mary’s car, the surgeon’s knife |
KINSHIP RELATIONSHIP | Tom’s mother, the boss’s wife |
WHOLE–PART RELATIONSHIP | Tom’s ear, the cat’s paw |
‘alienable possession’, covering ownership, and ‘inalienable possession’, for whole–part relationships; 而亲属可归于其一, 或再分类: 血亲不可让渡(同部分), 姻亲可
The nature of the possessive relationship may be coded—whether it is ==present or past, temporary or permanent, intimate (a pet dog) or distant (a herd of cattle)==.
用动词 'have', 或 copula construction
3.4 Who is doing it to whom
clause 有一个 predicate, 若干 argument.
clause 按 the number of core arguments their verb expects 分为两类:
an intransitive clause has an intransitive verb plus one core argument, in intransitive subject function (abbreviated as ‘==S==’)
a transitive clause has a transitive verb plus two core arguments, in transitive subject function (abbreviated as ‘==A==’)(the participant who initiates and/ or controls the activity) and transitive object function (abbreviated as ‘==O==’)(the other participant, which may be affected by the activity)
AO 区分方法:
格. 可以 AS(nominative)-O(accusative) 对立, 亦可 A(ergative)-SO(absolutive) 对立
语序 ordering of elements.
若语序不固定, 则可挪作他用, 如 the argument which is in focus may be placed at the beginning of the clause. Focus 用途例如 polar question
In English this focusing can only be shown by stress (indicated here by italics) or through a circumlocution.
Bound pronouns. 作用有限, AO 有同 bound pronoun 则不起作用. 诉诸他途.
语境.
(更多 argument) Both types may optionally be extended by peripheral arguments, indicating ==beneficiary (‘for his mother’), instrument (‘with an axe’), time (‘in the afternoon’), place (‘at the circus’), and so on==.
3.5 Saying what is what
Transitive and intransitive clauses 动词表示 actions (for example ‘John cut the bread’) or states (‘Mary enjoyed the play’). 亦需 describe relationships.
relationship 分类: (各种 identification) Identity, Attribution, Possession(This book is mine), Benefactive (The present is for John), Location (The mower is in the shed)
实现:
Like many others, English achieves this through copula clauses*, with be as the verb, and two arguments, a copula subject (CS) and a copula complement (CC).
copula verb has no reference, 而只携带语法信息
或在一些情况下可省
更多 copula: en.become ‘getting into a relationship’.(only be used for Identity or Attribution, not for Possession, Benefactive, or Location)
更多 copula: Spanish and Portuguese have two copulas: ser essentially refers to a permanent or semi-permanent state and estar to a temporary one.
或可直接并置二 NP. 其他信息,如时态,放上下文.
3.6 Succinctness
subordination:
complement clause: 如宾语.
其在英语的基本类型:
Describing a fact, marked by that, as in I saw [that John had cooked the dinner].
Describing an activity, marked by -ing on the verb of the complement clause, as in I watched [John cooking the dinner].
Describing some potentiality (purpose or intention), marked by (for) . . . to, as in I had intended [(for) John to cook the dinner] (but in fact Mary had done so before John arrived home).
些语言一种构造表示三种意思, 些语言更多, 比如区分直接间接意图, 些语言都没有, 而要用关系从句.
relative clause: 与形词皆为 narrow the reference of the head noun
coordination: 有语言明确标记如 and, 有语言直接并置
coordination 的 argument 的 省略: ‘S/A pivot’, ‘S/O pivot’
disjunction: 英语标记为 or, 有些语言不标记而给各子句加 'maybe'
更多 linker: including markers of consequence (‘if ’), cause (‘because’, ‘therefore’, ‘and so’), and contrast (‘but’). It is likely that every language has some means for indicating relative time (‘after’, ‘before’).
switch reference: 表示两个子句共/异主语, e.g. Chickasaw, 加于其中一句或两皆
4 What is desirable
略举几例.
4.1 Gender and classifiers
语言, 以给周遭事物分类.
Gender
(Gender & noun class) In recent years, the term ‘noun classes’ has been dropped in favour of ‘gender’ (whether or not there are contrasting terms for male and female sexes).
判定: gender 无论是否在名词本身上有显示, 其判断标准是必须在名词之外有所体现, 如 NP 中的修饰成分, 或动词的一致关系.
归派:
性的归派总有语义基础. 然世之 objects, properties, states, actions, concepts, ideas 多, 每个语法的项目却少, 故不同的实际区别映射至相同语法对立, 而统一语法属性者或对立.
或非实质, 而根据文化联系
同大类下有异常属性者, 异 gender
仍有部分无法解释
一些性系统或许很大且不是阴阳性, e. g. Swahili
Classifier
有一般意义的名词, 出现在 NP, 修饰有更特定指称的词.
项目数多于性. 只涵盖一部分名词.
些语言数词后必有, 些用于所属结构, 些跟动词显示 S/O,
4.2 Articles
广义
several kinds of grammatical system whose members feature in a noun phrase.
狭义
标记 NP 为定指/不定指. 则不包括 Fijian 和 Dyirbal 的了.
发现于欧洲及附近的多数语言, 别处很少, 世界上约 1/10.
表示独一无二时, 很有用. 跟性搭配使用很有用.
4.3 Tense, modality, and aspect
时间不对称. 过去已定, 现在瞬间, 未来混合着概率与义务
有些叙述没有时间(timeless): 客观事实
tense, 是 shifters
时态系统中的将来, 基本指预测. 关于未来的可能远不止于此, 可以一系列情态 (modality) 标记代替将来时.
英语情态助词:
| MODALITY | MODAL AUXILIARY | EXAMPLE |
|---|---|---|
prediction | will | ‘It will rain tomorrow’ |
obligation | should | ‘I should attend the wedding (but may not be able to)’ |
necessity | must | ‘I must attend the wedding (come what may)’ |
possibility | may, might | ‘I may/might attend thewedding’ |
imminent activity | be about to | ‘I am about to vomit’ |
ability | can | ‘John can speak French’ |
Bini (from Nigeria) 有情态小品词, 填一个表示 desire 的(want to/ will)
英语的 zero/-s 的用法: 1. timeless and generic statements; 2. use with a time word or phrase referring to the future. 英语的现在时间由 be doing.
数量: 或许三个, 或许过去非过去, 或许将来非将来. 或几个过去(Jarawara 有 immediate, recent, far); Washo (spoken in Nevada) has four pasts and three futures.
时态存在于陈述, 通常用于所有疑问, 但不用于祈使.
Aspect. 最初用于描述 perfective/imperfective 对立在斯拉夫语族, 现在用于多种与动词有关的系统.
(术语扰人) Linguistic terminology can be confusing. ‘Mood’, referring to types of speech act (declarative, imperative, interrogative), is a totally different thing from ‘modality’, describing aspects of the future (obligation, possibility, prediction, etc.). Care must also be taken to distinguish between ‘perfective’/‘imperfective’ and the quite different ‘perfect/imperfect’. The term ‘perfect’ refers to an event which is completed but still has present relevance, and ‘imperfect’ to something which began in the past and is still continuing.
4.4 Evidentiality
叙述依仗的信息源.
世界 1/4 语言.
Tariana 有 5. Visual, non-visual, inferred, assumed, reported.
过去时陈述语气最多. 现在时少, 将来时更少. 疑问语气少, 祈使语气更少.
4.5 Comparative constructions
有些社会, 如 Dyirbal, Jarawara, 不去比较人, 文化使得其语法没有完全成熟的比较结构.
英语的比较原型: 比较对象, 参照物(+标记), 参数 parameter (+ index, 如 more, less).
还可扩充, 如一个对象的两个属性比较, 或两个子句比较 etc.
其他方法, 如用 '超过', 或直接两句话(一个写 'good' 一个写不/很 'good')
比较有 gradation, 也有 identity
4.6 Passives, reflexives, and reciprocals
及物子句 -> 不及物结构
英语的 O 可忽略, 但 A 不可, 只能来被动.
被动态用途:
When the identity of the underlying A argument is not known—as in John was attacked last night—or is not important—The cake was eaten yesterday.
To focus on the result of an activity, as in John was wounded.
To allow a topic to run through a series of clauses. For example, The assassin threw down his gun, ran off, and hid in a barn for two days before being apprehended (to substitute for the last clause before the police apprehended him would make the narrative disjointed).
To allow a repeated noun phrase to be omitted, creating a tighter discourse.
帮助有 S/A pivot 者省略. S/O pivot 者则或有 antipassive
或有 agentless passive, 不可包含原句的 A 变元 (en.by 引出)
reflexive 两种结构类型:
Maintain a transitive clause and place a reflexive pronoun in the O slot.
Create an intransitive clause by adding a reflexive affix to the verb.
有些无反身结构, 那么第三人称不好办
reciprocal, AO 互换也, 两种结构类型:
A reciprocal pronoun in the O slot of transitive clause.
A derived intransitive construction, with reciprocal marking on the verb, and the S argument being the sum of A and O arguments in the underlying transitive clauses.
有些, 如 Australian language Guugu Yimidhirr, 不区分反身与相互
4.7 Causatives and applicatives
不及物 -> 及物
S -> O: causative, 新成分 causer
S -> A: applicative
Causative
一些用词缀, 另用独立词, 如 make
一些词对, 一个等效于另一个的使成, 如 go, put
些语言仅用于不及物词, 另些用于全部或部分及物动词
或区分不同使成式, 如 Hindi, direct, indirect; Kammu(南亚), 有意, 无意; 是否愿意; 是否自己也参与活动...
Applicative
把 peripheral argument 放到 core function O
使可以参加句子连接.
可用于及物动词, 原 O outlawed into the periphery
仅约 1/4 语言有.
(些有多种) A number do have several varieties of applicative, according to the original function of the peripheral argument which is to become O. Javanese, for instance, has four. Besides the ==instrumental== applicative (just illustrated), there is ==locative== (‘He wrote Javanese script ++on the gate++’), ==benefactive== (‘She cooked a cake ++for father++’), and ==recipient== (‘He taught English ++to Bambang++’). In each instance, the underlined argument is divested of its preposition and taken into O slot.
5 What is not (really) needed
5.1 Irregularities
于交流无益.
Everything can be explained, but this doesn’t make it easier to master the intricacies of the modern language.
或许, 于社会方面区分非母语者; 浓缩历史增加趣味; 短词或便于发音, 但是, 好说却难掌握.
Jarawara 方言葡语更规则, 然其自己的语言, 我的天.
5.2 Suppletion
The type of irregularity where one word uses two roots is known as ‘suppletion’. 异干互补.
英语的 better, went, was 等, 与前节同, 无益.
有益者, 如 Kyaka Enga, a language from the Highlands of Papua New Guinea, 对 'to give' 有互补, 一个用于第三人称接收者, 一个 1st and 2nd person recipient. 重要信息的冗余.
Whereas many other irregularities are definitely not needed, this one—which carries meaning—is advantageous.
5.3 Grammatical redundancy
葡语名词短语的性标志. 此者, 并非每个名词, 每个形词, 都区分性.
斯语性标在 NP 的名词, 所有修饰语, 以及外面的动词都重复. Such a multiplicity of agreement is not really needed. Except that it helps define the character—one might say the beauty—of Swahili.
在 Dyirbal, 这一重复使 NP 中各词可分散于句子各处, 自由词序, 以如 section 3.4 所述语序表焦点.
总之, 不经济, 有时全然浪费, 但可以有可取的副作用, 不应全然反对.
5.4 Semantic redundancy
Dyirbal 的地点副词可以加词缀, 表示 上/下 山/河 或跨河或再远之处, 而也有不同动词区分上下山河, 跨河. 通常是语法手段与词汇手段无意义地重复了, 但某些情况可以表示 e.g. 走下山到下游某处.
This overlap between grammar and lexicon can be of some use, in a territory with a profusion of rivers and steep hills.
5.5 Repetition or no repetition
从讨论语法转向讨论 style: 在一些语域, 重复很有价值; 但写作或禁止重复, 其意义有待争论.
‘the I have a dream speech’.
英语写作视重复词汇与结构为 bad style.
然高频词为啥不能多用, 意义有别的近义词为啥要替换. 语义层面未添一物, 然丧失了一致性.
All in all, the avoidance of repetition in modern English prose is an affectation, something which is not needed for the language to function efficiently. It doubtless conveys aesthetic grace to some people, but to others it is just a beastly nuisance. And it does depend on a goodly stock of semi-synonyms, a topic which will be addressed in section 7.3.
6 How about complexity?
在复杂度方面离原始语言越远, 也就是说越复杂, 这样的语言越好吗? 不一定. 符合理想的标准, 可以通过直接方式, 也可以繁琐, 直接多好.
比较一些语言, 只要能有全面的语法出版, 其中语法极复杂者大部分是小的, 地方性的语种. 在外界介入前都没文字, 于是复杂度跟文字无关.
下两节展示 Jarawara 复杂的语法.
6.1 Distinguishing suffixes
决定谓语动词的各个词缀.
6.2 Multiple auxiliaries
1/3 verbs 'inflecting', 余者(non-inflecting)用 AUXa 放词缀. 不同的AUX. 可屈折者在 reduplication 时带 AUXb. AUXc(from an auxiliary-taking suffix). AUXd(from an auxiliary-bound suffix).
6.3 Losing and gaining complexity
世界主要语言, 常作为通用语, 大体都不那么复杂.
语言的使用者在同一地形区, 少数几个群体, 相似的社会与心理态度, 则更可能有特殊语法. 如上下山. 如, 言据性, 都是在看法相近的小群体, 他们要求知道证据, 并且若不如此可能会被归咎.
批判 Meillet 认为失去 case marking 是文明的体现的观点.
语言扩张后, 新使用者或降其复杂度.
主要语种的使用者, 常单语.
语言交流, 增加语法. 取决于社会关系, 社群相对大小, 地位高低, 对多语的态度, 语言复杂度(简单者的语法容易扩张).
//(Vaupés River Basin of north-west Brazil 人必须婚异语.)
不规则现象带来复杂度. 或来自历史变化, 让词变短或好说. 或都不知道哪来的, e.g. the auxiliary-taking suffixes of Jarawara.
A typical change, cross-linguistically, is for lexical words to become grammatical affixes (what is called ‘grammaticalisation’).
新语言或来自方言的逐渐分化, 如此都和原语言一样复杂.
亦有新语言, creole, 来自 pidgin. pidgin 应用有限, 不是完全之语. 年轻的 creole 缺乏复杂性, 而成长后亦能承担自己的角色.
In summary, 语言复杂度与其价值无关. 有点有用的语法范畴挺好. 但很多只是保留古态及过渡态. However, there are aspects of complexity in which a speaker (or a linguist) may delight, as adding a veneer of splendour over the workmanlike infrastructure of the language.
//(辟谣, Pirahã 并不那么简单)
7 How many words should there be?
有共有概念, 精确度有差别.
7.1 Specification
些类活动要术语. 语言在某方面的丰富显示了人们兴趣的取向与强弱.
更通用的如, 女王, 亲属, 日月.
共有的如, 饮食.
可有合并, 可有细分, 每个语言都会在一些方面稍微细一点.
7.2 Homonymy
一词多义. 混乱程度取决于意义和功能倾向.
不同语法成分, 如词缀, 同形.
降低效率, 需要更多冗余, 减少省略的可能.
7.3 Synonymy
Homonym, synonym, hyponym,
Yidiñ is unusual, with exact synonyms existing for discourse replacement.
英语只有 semi-synonym
In essence, synonyms and close semi-synonyms are a bit of a luxury, but can have important discourse, pragmatic, and other roles. An extravagance here must be weighed against indulgencies in other areas, as will be discussed in the next chapter.
7.4 Overlapping word classes
英语抽象名词主要两类: 1. 与一类形词有关的属性. 2. 动作.
Dyirbal 动词与形词 overlap
In summary, having more than one word class covering what is essentially a single concept adds fluidity. While not strictly necessary (except for ‘colour’ and perhaps a few other items), the semantic nuances can be of considerable practical use.
7.5 How many words are needed?
英语多少词: 那么几十万很多是古旧或方言; 个人用多少; Cobuild 说 1,720 词占英语全部应用的 75%, 14,600 词 95%.
Basic English(in the 1920s, C. K. Ogden) vs (呵呵)phrasal verb.
How many words does a language need? How many words do most of the non-major languages actually have? All that can be offered is an educated guess—probably between five and ten thousand. English and other major languages have many more, partly through multiple semi-synonyms, but mainly due to so many particular fields of endeavour: specialised terms used in law, music, art, and all manner of trades and sciences.
8 The limits of a language
Linguists typically throw out the aphorism: languages differ not in what one can say but in what one must say. 然而, 必说的东西不一样, 能说的东西一样吗 (皆能以简便度合理的方式翻译吗)?
8.1 What must be said
Surely it would be beneficial if every language included all of these categories(in Chapter 3,4), each in its fullest and most explicit form. We can list some of the more important ones.
Mood (sec.3.1)
Negation (3.2)
Possession (3.3)
Identifying roles (3.4)
Gender (4.1)
Definiteness (4.2)
Tense, modality, and aspect (4.3)
Evidentiality (4.4)
Pronoun system (2.5)
Causatives (4.7)
There are quite a number of other grammatical systems which mightwell be extended, in their fullest forms, across all languages— three degrees of distance in demonstratives (section 2.5); separate copulas for identity, attribution, possessive, benefaction, and location (3.5), a variety of relative clause and complement clause constructions (3.6), several passives with different meanings (4.6), a range of applicative constructions (4.7). Note that this is far from an exhaustive list.
人脑撑不了... 像赴宴. 选择有一定的原因: 继承, 语言接触, 环境.
词 -> 语法
语法向一个方向发展后, 其他方向可能性减低.
8.2 What can be said
语法, 有的好转化, 有的不容易.
词法. 有些事件会从不同的角度观察; 表现特定文化.
8.3 Putting it all together
多数人对语法只有模糊认知. 语法复杂度有限.
词汇的复杂度独立于语法, 而关乎记忆力.
接触其他语言的结构, 会强化母语的认知.
语言有不同语域的模式, 也可以不同语域用不同变体(此现象 diglossia)/语言
语言相似度不同. 但几门很不同的语言加起来, 其语法也比 section 8.1 的 'maximal language' 少得多.
In summary, there are definite limits to the amount of grammatical detail any language can handle. Size of vocabulary is a different, and independent, matter. This does vary with intelligence, application, and retentiveness of memory.
There are just a few exceptional people, with the appropriate kind of mental prowess, who are fully competent in several languages of quite different mien.
9 Better for what purpose?
9.1 Better for whom?
说话人: 懒音, 但有冗余. 听话者: 清晰.
语言的变化有利有弊.
有些便于描述语法, 编纂词典, 教学.
9.2 For identification
起名.
Anyone can make up a name; my own eldest daughter is called Eelsha.
9.3 For learning
The consensus is that every child—whatever their ethnic origin— is equally capable of learning any language if brought up in the appropriate cultural setting.
A language is not a self-contained entity which can be learnt in the same way as, say, symbolic logic. Language is one element— perhaps the most important one—in the fabric of a human society.
书写方式的掌握难度各异.
对 L2 的容易度呢? 小孩子只要环境, 大人还要语法课. 文化相似度, 语法相似度. 一些因素阻止被学, 一些容易被学(disjunctive 'or').
理想的语言, 适度包含主要语法范畴, 好学. 如新进的 creole 们.
9.4 What people miss
非英语背景在英语地区生活后最想念
您
Idioms
Emotive lexemes
Ease of expression
9.5 What might be the consequences?
YY 个场景.
语言不那么有用但还是有点用. 并为其他功能服务.
10 An ideal language
多样性.
以下, 理想情况下出现于所有语言, 可以说是 infrastructure. 一些普通的范畴, 以适当的程度. 每个语言又可以有自己的 luxuries, 开心就好, 总数有限于人脑之力.
A most important point to be stressed before you read further is that the forty-two features presented in the remainder of this chapter ==simply reflect my opinion==. They are most certainly ==not set in stone==. ==You should think about and assess each one, modifying (or even deleting) it as you judge appropriate. And you may well choose to add further features.==
10.1 General features
首先, 避免:
Do not have intonation as the only mark of a grammatical distinction.
Do not use the ordering of words as the only mark of a grammatical property.
Have few or no homonyms.
Avoid pairs of lexemes with very similar pronunciations but different meanings, which belong to the same semantic field.
Have a minimum of irregularities.
Avoid having an orthography which does not have a simple correspondence between contrastive sounds (phonemes) and letters of the alphabet.
可取:
Have one or more productive processes of reduplication.
Have ways of forming augmentatives and diminutives.
10.2 Phonology
应够传递意义, 但不要多到发音/理解困难.:
Vowels.
Consonants.
Syllable structure.
Tones.
10.3 Grammar
Demonstratives.
Personal pronouns.
Inclusive/exclusive.
Anaphoric devices.
Explicit marking of moods.
Having a full set of content question words.
Distinguishing between ‘how much ‘and ‘how many’.
Having ample means of negating.
Possession.
Having a verb ‘have’.
A system of case marking.
Copulas.
Techniques for linking clauses.
Subordinate clauses.
Pivots and switch-reference.
Genders and classifiers.
Definiteness.
Tenses and modalities.
Evidentiality.
Comparative constructions.
Passive constructions.
Reflexive and reciprocal constructions.
Causatives.
10.4 Vocabulary
It is best to have a minimum of double duty words.
Simple lexemes are preferable to descriptive labels.
Having a goodly array of abstract nouns.
Distinguishing process from result.
All kinds of names.
Kin terms.
General vocabulary.
10.5 Envoi
这几节加起来可能是大杂烩.
语言是社会有机体, 回应环境. 反映其社会, 随社会变化, 内部力量, 语言和文化交流而变化.
每个语言是否同样好地服务于自己的目的, 上述 24 特点可评价其以某种方式运行状况.
人类强在适应性, 语言也是. 要精确能精确, 模糊能模糊, 表达简省与清晰的平衡, 为修辞效果可以放松一下对话的紧密性, 而中心意义之外的附加微妙含义和细微的语义对比带来多彩与活力.
11 Facing up to the question
自己动手:
评价前一章的理想语言的基本特性, 根据自己修改.
权重. People will vary in weightings according to their major concerns—as they are most interested in learning and teaching, or in translation, or in aesthetics, or in argumentation and inference, and so on.
找俩足够掌握足够了解语法结构的语言.
评价.
本书但假说尔. 评分高低代表什么? 或许:
That B is more easily understood by a listener. That it is more straightforward for description by a linguist, and for the preparation of teaching materials by an applied linguist. That it requires less effort to be acquired as L2 by an adult. That it poses relatively little difficulty when being translated out of, or being translated into. That it provides greater specificity for naming, and for describing social stratification. That it has richer resources for expressing emotions. That it is highly suitable for enabling cooperative endeavour, for conveying information in a succinct and memorisable manner, for functioning as a vehicle for aesthetic expression, for being a conduit for scientific thought and argumentation. That it is effective for mass persuasion. And no doubt more besides.
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